Week 3:  
Cognitivism

Overview of cognitivism  

 

Cognitivism studies how memory, thought, knowledge, and problem-solving impact learning. The concept emerged in the late 1950s and has continued to evolve to the present day. Cognitive approaches focus on comprehension, abstraction, analysis, synthesis, generalizations, and evaluations.

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Central Principles of Cognitivism

1. Learning is a process of organizing information into conceptualized models.

2. Instructions should be organized, sequenced, and presented in an understandable and meaningful manner to the learner.

3. Retention and recall are needed to build schemas in the brain.

4. Memory is supported by organizing learning material.

 

The 5 Key Components of the Cognitive Process 

1. Perception - Retrieving information from sensory input.

2. Executive Process - Regulates the flow of information process, organization, and retrieving long-term memories to working memory.

3. Short-Term/Working Memory - Limited in capacity and duration, includes central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer. 

4. Encoding - Integrating new information with what is already known.

5. Long-term memory - Storage for later retrieval, theoretically unlimited in duration and capacity. 

 

Cognitive Load Theory (CL) - A finite amount of information can be processed in the brain at one time. The problem is that short-term memory has constraints. 

 

 

KEY RESEARCHERS

Jean Piaget (1896 - 1980)

Focused on the importance of learners engaging with their environment, he believed children’s  intelligence differs from adults in quality, not quantity.

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Key contributions: 

4 stages of cognitive development in children  

• Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 years

• Preoperational Stage: 2 to 7 years

• Concrete Operational Stage: 7 to 11 years

• Formal Operational Stage: Ages 12 and up

 

Lev Vygotsky (1896 - 1934)

Contemporary of Piaget. Emphasized the importance of active participation in the learning process and the creation of meaningful and thoughtful interactions with the world. 

 

Key contributions: 

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) 

The gap between actual and potential learning. It is most beneficial when a task is just beyond the learner's capabilities.

Zones: 

Inner - What children accomplish independently. 

Middle - What can be achieved with help from a more competent individual.

Outer - Learning that is beyond a child's grasp -  overly challenging or demotivating.

 

Scaffolding - Providing appropriate support to learners as they tackle challenging tasks - guidance and assistance. Start with direct guidance; as understanding increases, guidance decreases.

 

Emphasized the importance of language as both a means for adults to transmit information to children and as a tool for intellectual adaptation. Both social speech and private speech play critical roles in learning. 

 

Criticized for ignoring the impact of emotion as well as assuming theories apply to all cultures equally. 

 

Jerome Bruner (1915 - 2016)

The aim of education is to create autonomous learners who develop problem-solving skills that can be applied to many learning situations. 

 

Children are active problem solvers - Learning encompasses assimilation and processing and the ability to predict, create, and invent. Published a major study in 1949 on how the social environment significantly influences our perceptions and cognitive functioning.

 

Key contributions: 

Theory of Cognitive Development/Modes of Representation

1. Enactive Representation (0-18 months) - Knowledge is stirred in motor responses (shake a rattle).

2. Iconic Representation (18 months - 6 yrs) - Knowledge stored as sensory images (diagrams, illustrations).

3. Symbolic Representation (6 yrs +) - Knowledge stored as language, symbols.

 

Albert Bandura (1925-2021)

Learning occurs through observation, imitation, and social experiences.

 

Agency - Individuals are active participants in their own learning journey. Learners monitor and adjust behaviors based on outcomes, demonstrating mastery over actions and results.

Self-efficacy - Individuals believe in their capacity to accomplish a specific task.

 

Key contributions: 

Social Learning Theory (SLT) 1977

Renamed to Social Cognitive Theory (1986)

A bridge between traditional learning (behaviorism) and cognitivism.  People learn through observing, imitating, and modeling others' behavior. 

 

1. Learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social setting.

2. Learning occurs through observing behavior and its consequences.

3. Learning can occur without an observable change in behavior.

4. Reinforcements play a role but are not entirely responsible for learning.

5. Cognition, behavior, and environment mutually influence each other - reciprocal determinism.

 

John Sweller (1946 - )

Key contribution:

Cognitive Load Theory CLT   

• Memory is a sophisticated structure (schemas) that allows people to perceive, think, solve problems

• There may be schemas within schemas

• Learning requires a change in schematic structure in long-term memory

• CLT is best applied with complex or technical materials. 

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Implications of cognitivism for instructional design 

Cognitivism emerged in the 1950s as a counterpoint to behaviorism. Pioneers such as Piaget, Vygotsky, Bruner, and Bandura argued that learning cannot be viewed solely as a product of observable behavior in reaction to stimuli. Instead, learning includes internal processes that should be considered when developing learning experiences.  Key areas of cognitivism that hold vital implications for instructional design are cognitive load management and personalization (individualized learning).

 

Cognitive Load

There is a limit to how much information an individual’s working memory can hold, and IDs should consider these limitations when designing experiences for both in-person and online learning. Ways to manage load during learning: 

 

1. Reducing the redundancy of information and distracting visual elements allows students to focus on critical material without distraction.

2. Present visually and aurally to maximize the dual channels of visual and auditory memory, which each have their own memory load. 

3. Let students learn elements separately; both segmenting and pre-training reduce cognitive load and free up working memory.

4. Demonstrate problem-solving and provide worked examples to reduce unnecessary load while the material is first being learned.

5. Use learning assessments to remove basic info for students with a greater level of experience.

 

Personalization

As Vygotsky prescribed, teachers should co-create meaning for students rather than assuming each learner comes from a common starting point. Fostering an environment where students actively participate in and regulate their own learning produces more positive learning outcomes. In an era of increasingly large in-person and online classrooms, instructional design should continue to focus on ensuring teachers have time to assess the current capabilities of their students before beginning instruction.  This would reinforce the concepts of agency (learners are active participants in their learning) and self-efficacy (individuals believing in their own capacity).

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Strengths & Limitations of Cognitivism in Corporate Training

Cognitivism is an excellent option for corporate training since much of the content taught in this setting focuses on problem-solving and skill-building. 

 

Strengths 

• Managers and/or HR departments would have a good idea of each individual’s current capabilities based on job performance reviews.

• Corporate training often occurs in short segments over a period of time rather than all at once, which is excellent for segmenting material and allows learners to practice skills between sessions.

• Cognitive approaches focus on teaching how to learn (comprehension, relationships, analysis), which allows workers to apply knowledge to different aspects of their job or use it as they move to new roles.

 

Limitations

• Motivation - Corporate learning is often mandatory, and learners may not have a personal interest in learning the material.

• While cognitivism can be effective in technical skill building or memorization of rote information, it may not be the best approach for complex or nuanced information. 

• Collaborating with peers (coworkers) to learn is most impactful when those in the ZPD have more mastery over the topic, which isn’t always the case in corporate training. 

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